Fieldwalking in Archaeology

Introduction Field walking can be defined as a technique for examining or studying archaeological sites by walking in a systematic way across a ploughed field collecting artifacts on the surface (Fasham, 1980). In most cases, it is practiced with the aim of locating or mapping the distribution and the extent of archaeological sites. It is believed that the top soil contains distinctive traces of all critical activities of archaeology (Wiseman Zachos, 2003).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Fieldwalking in Archaeology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This explains why the topsoil is so much valued while giving information about archaeology (Bloemers Bodemarchief in Behoud en Ontwikkeling, 2010). Field walking includes all the materials found in the soil. It also includes all the materials from the features that are under the top soil, which are exposed as a result of cultivation or ground works that come as plou gh soil. Different sources of materials are mixed due to cultivation making a certain proportion of the soil’s content to be seen on the surface (Gabler, 2009).  There are two ways of carrying out field walking. This includes line walking and grid walking (Darvill, 2008). Line walking is where the lines of transects are created at certain intervals, and the field walkers walk along each line collecting materials that are within the line. The lines should be divided into stints, and the field walkers then bag the materials recovered by the line and the stint. The second technique, which is grid walking, is where the survey area is divided into squares, and the field walkers use the fixed amount of time to work on each square collecting all the materials that they can see during the specified time of the search (Haas Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen, 2011). After the specified time ends, the field walkers bag the collected materials together, then they move to the next square.   Later on, different categories are mapped and the patterns identified. In this context, the paper discusses an investigation of the vale of Pewsey, Wiltshire of the late Bronze Age and Early Iron age (Pyle, 2000; Ellis, Powell, Hawkes Allen, 2008). Investigating the vale of Pewsey and Wiltshire The research is about field walking and is set to examine the nature and extent of prehistoric activity of human in the Vale of Pewsey, a relatively poor area located between the Marborough Downs and Salisbury Plain (Timperley, 1954). The investigation will take place at the archaeological deposits at All Cannings Cross (Cunnington, 1923).Advertising Looking for report on archeology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Early All Cannings Ware Assemblages consist of round shouldered large jars with stamped in-filled decoration, bipartite bowls and tripartite jars (Cunlife, 2005, 90). The Late All Cannings Ware series is known by the decreasing number of large decorated jars, an increase in the number of furrowed, carinated bowls some of which are long necked and an increasing use of haematite coating (Cunlife, 2005, 92). It can be noted that date to the emergence of the Late All Cannings Cross Group is not shown. The majority of All Cannings Cross Wares was made using local raw materials and the rest of the vessels incorporated materials from the wider region (Morris in Lawson, 2000, 140-9). The East Chisenbury site is 2.5 meters high and 140 meters wide mound in the landscape that has never been affected by erosion, cultivation and tree planting (McGovern Brown, 1986). After field walking, the materials that can be recovered from this place include animal bones, pottery, worked bones, stones, clay and metalwork (Kipfer, 2000). Issues and field working methods Establishment of a scale and the All Cannings Cross Site will be instrumental in the work to take place. In the early 20th century, the Cunningtons car ried out investigations at the site. This was prompted when huge chunks of hammerstones were found. The field is located close to the vale of Pewsey.  In addition, there was the enclosure of Rybury Camp above (Wild, 2003). In the years between 1920 and 1922, three excavations followed in three seasons, which are equivalent to 15 weeks of excavations that took place. It is likely that the areas trenched could be repositioned with some certainty and the latest re-excavation at the Sanctuary on Overton Hill has brought into the fore more about Maude Cunnington’s field techniques (Averkieva Sherman, 1992). Work at the sanctuary indicates that the deposits that had been trenched by Cunnington still remain in the areas. Thus, resource assessment is critical. The resource assessment will help to establish the character of the data set (Okabe, 2006).  The areas to the west or any area under cultivation will need to be field walked hence prompting for a need for the field walking program. It is also important for the remaining deposits to be assessed to provide a basis of designing an adequate program of research and intervention (Chakrabarti, 2001). A consistent approach is required for field walking survey to ensure that the materials collected were accurately plotted and collected in a standardized way.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Fieldwalking in Archaeology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is also vital for the process of collection to be able to register comparisons of quality and quantity across an individual site or the whole of the survey region. The entire approach is better because the individual approach will result in resource constraints in favor of the utilization of the standardized grid system. The most appropriate way of preparing grids for field walk is to use site surveying poles along a fixed line. Putting down reference points as work proceeds are vital to a void or reduce errors. Every intersection of the imaginary box grid will then be marked using a visible marker to avoid confusion (Tawrell, 2006). Notably, the topography of the region (Pewsey) is not on the same level. Thus, the estimates will vary according to the amount of the surface area, which can be effectively explored visually by individual field walkers who are competent at working on a stint or a traverse (Grant, 2006). Adopting a grid system will provide a mechanism that will allow comparisons. This will also allow comparisons between the various classifications of settlements at a scale associated with the investigations of archaeology (Schwind, 2007; Wilkinson Kent Archaeological Field School 2007). Other than recording data, it is important to record the date and duration of field walking (Kipfer, 2000). In addition to that, the light present should be assessed. In addition, moisture in the soil, field condition, and the crops should be noted. The site details which concerns the physical geology and the directions should be kept as these are the details of the location. Conclusion Field walking is very vital in archaeological field work survey, especially where visibility is good. Field walking includes all materials that are into or onto the top soil. It also includes all materials from the features that are under the top soil that are exposed as a result of cultivation or ground works, which come as plough soil. The model is best suited for ploughed grounds. It can also be appropriate for surfaces with slight foliage. In this case, the soil is frequently turned to expose the artifacts and bring them on the surface. Erosion is also instrumental in facilitating field walking. In this case, it erodes the top soil allowing the underneath to be exposed.Advertising Looking for report on archeology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Reference List Averkieva, Y Sherman, MA 1992, Kwakiutl string figures, UBC Press, Vancouver. Bloemers, JHF Bodemarchief in Behoud en Ontwikkeling 2010, The cultural landscape heritage paradox: Protection and development of the Dutch archaeological-historical landscape and its European dimension, Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam. Chakrabarti, DK 2001, Archaeological geography of the Ganga Plain: The lower and the middle Ganga, Permanent Black, Delhi. Cunnington, MEP 1923, Early iron age inhabited site at All Cannings Cross Farm, Wiltshire: A description of the excavations, Simpson, Devizes. Darvill, T 2008, The concise Oxford dictionary of archaeology, Oxford University Press, New York. Ellis, C, Powell, AB, Hawkes, J Allen, MJ 2008, An Iron Age settlement outside Battlesbury Hillfort, Warminster, and sites along the Southern Range Road, Wessex Archaeology, Salisbury. Fasham, PJ 1980, Fieldwalking for archaeologists, Hampshire Field Club and Archaeological Society, S.l. Gabl er, RE 2009, Physical geography, Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA. Grant, S 2006, Alternative ageing: The natural way to hold back the years, Michael Joseph, London. Haas, TCA Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen 2011, Fields, farms and colonists: Intensive field survey and early Roman colonization in the Pontine region, central Italy, Barkhuis, Eelde. Kipfer, BA 2000, Encyclopedic dictionary of archaeology, Kluwer Acad./Plenum Publ., New York. Kipfer, BA 2000, Encyclopedic dictionary of archaeology, Kluwer Acad./Plenum Publ. New York. McGovern, PE Brown, R 1986, The late bronze and early iron ages of central Transjordan, the BaqÊ »ah Valley project, 1977-1981, University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Okabe, A 2006, GIS-based studies in the humanities and social sciences, CRC/Taylor Francis, Boca Raton, FL. Pyle, RM 2000, Walking the high ridge: Life as field trip, Milkweed Editions, Minneapolis Minn. Schwind, M 2007, Dynamic pricing and automated resource allocation for complex information services: Reinforcement learning and combinatorial auctions, Springer, Berlin. Tawrell, P 2006, Camping wilderness survival: The ultimate outdoors book, Paul Tawrell, Lebanon. Timperley, HW 1954, The Vale of Pewsey, Hale, London Wild, T 2003, Village England: A social history of the countryside, Tauris, London. Wilkinson, P Kent Archaeological Field School 2007, Archaeology: What it is, where it is, and how to do it, Archaeopress, Oxford. Wiseman, J Zachos, KL 2003, Landscape archaeology in southern Epirus, Greece I, American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Athens. This report on Fieldwalking in Archaeology was written and submitted by user Tristin T. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Julius Caesars Character Analysis Brutus essays

Julius Caesar's Character Analysis Brutus essays Character Analysis on Julius Caesars The most favorite character of mine of Shakespeares Julius Caesar was Brutus. Although at times his trustworthiness was to the point of naivenss he was also the most moral character in the play. His leaderistic quality convinced him that the assassination of Caesar was the best thing to do for the public and for himself. Idealistic about nobility and honor (which was as a convincing point by other characters) he can almost be seen as a tragic hero. Perhaps one of the most admirable traits of Brutus was his morality. That never floundered in his decisions. His vacilitaty in between being part of the conspiracy or not was because of his moral standards. Killing a close friend was not in his wanting, but he determined it as the best for the public (another moral justification of joining the conspiracy). Yet another reason for the assassination of Caesar was that Brutus didnt want him to have all power because then he wouldnt have the same amount of power as he did now. That leadiristic or dictatorial quality in him leads him to also keep Cicero out because he wants the power reserved for himself. At that point in the play already Brutus has taken over the conspiracy and he isnt bad at it because even though everyone agrees to have Cicero in the conspiracy, Brutus objects and his decision alone stands over the three other conspirators. Brutuss trust in Cassiuss words and idea that he should be a conspirator takes over his indecisiveness and conscience to kill Caesar. Although Brutuss suicide proves that his head was making the decisions, not his heart. His idealism with nobility and honor lead other people to have a great point when convincing Brutus of doing something. For example, Cassius convinces him by telling him that Caesar shouldnt be more important when he says, W ...

What are the differences between Wrongful Interference with a Essay

What are the differences between Wrongful Interference with a Contractual Relationship and Wrongful Interference with a Business Relationship - Essay Example It is also applicable where the tortfeasor goes against one party to perform his commitments under the agreement, accordingly keeping the offended party from getting the promised performance. The exemplary example of this tort happens when one party impels an alternate party to break an agreement with an outsider, in circumstances where the first party has no benefit to go about as it does and acts with information of the existence of the agreement. Such lead is termed tortious incitement of break of contract (Cross et al. 2012). The difference between wrongful interference with contractual and business relationship is very clear. To begin, wrongful inference with business happens where the offender acts in prevention of a plaintiff from establishing business relationship successfully. This tort may happen when the first party intentionally acts to cause the second party to stop pursuing a particular business line or enter into a business relationship with a third party, which would otherwise occurred. Such acts are considered as wrongful or tortious inference with a prospective business expectation, or merit or prospective financial benefit (John & Lawrence, 2000). Secondly, under the contract basis, the injured party sometime strives and becomes capable of recovering the actual damages for the direct and natural consequences of the breach. The injured party may also recover for damages, which were within the scrutiny of the contracting parties. The indemnities recoverable for wrongful interference are not measured through contract rules. Nonetheless, the injured party can convalesce from the tortfeasor: the contract’s financial forfeiture of the paybacks; far-reaching losses that the interference is termed as legal cause; and, emotional distress. In fact, emotional distress refers to the actual harm to reputation if they are judiciously to be anticipated to come up with as a result of the

Compare and contrast Plato's claim Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Compare and contrast Plato's claim - Essay Example Conversely, in Twilight of the Idols, Nietzsche calls into question the very nature of meaning and advances the notion of a transvaluation of values that reconsiders the notion of morality. This essay considers Plato’s characterization of the examined life through his dialogue the Apology and contrasts it with Nietzsche converse understanding from Twilight of the Idols. Apology One of the most seminal of Plato’s dialogues, the Apology constitutes Socrates’ argument to the Athenian court for his innocence. Throughout Socrates’ argument there is the thematic undercurrent that in teaching wisdom and spreading the truth to the Athenian youth he is pursuing the right path, and that to cease doing so and live an examined life to prevent the court form taking his life is not worth doing. The first instance where Socrates indicates as much occurs in his rebuttal of Meletus, when he states, â€Å"a man who is good for anything ought not to calculate the chance of living or dying; he ought only to consider whether in doing anything he is doing right or wrong - acting the part of a good man or of a bad† (Plato). Socrates goes on to explain how according to Meletus’ reasoning the men who died valiantly at the battle of Troy were wrong in doing so. One of the primary complaints that Meletus levies against Socrates is his argument that Socrates has corrupted the youth by advising them not to believe in the gods. In refutation of this Socrates seems to argue that he actually embraces a belief in the gods, just not in the form that is traditionally accepted in Greek culture. Instead, Socrates embracement of the gods comes in terms of his purpose in life, which is living the examined life. In these regards, Socrates states, â€Å"God orders me to fulfil the philosopher's mission of searching into myself and other men, I were to desert my post through fear of death, or any other fear; that would indeed be strange, and I might justly be arraigned in court for denying the existence of the gods, if I disobeyed the oracle because I was afraid of death† (Plato). Here Socrates is indicating that since God has made his purpose that of a philosopher, then the core element of his existence is to live the examined life, so that ultimately Meletus’ claims that Socrates has corrupted the Athenian youth by expounding on the knowledge he gained from living the examined life is erroneous as he has done this out of following the purpose God or the gods placed him on Earth. While this is an interesting rebuttal, perhaps the most notable element of this discussion is the relevance it holds for the current examination of the examined life, and the importance contextualizing Socrates perspective in terms of the argument. While the prevailing wisdom of individuals only cursorily familiar with Plato’s statement through Socrates that the unexamined life is not worth living generally understand it to mean that Socrate s is speaking to all individuals; they believe that Socrates is stating that any individual who chooses not to live an examined life, or the life of a philosopher is unjustified in doing so, when in actuality Socrates is indicating here that this is true only for him. As the Apology continues Socrates keeps with this line of reasoning, and seems to expand his earlier statement to include all men. In considering Socrates’

An inhumane practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

An inhumane practice - Essay Example Animals are no different from us humans, because they have the same organs and systems that we have. This is most especially true with chimpanzees, which share 99% of their DNA with us humans (Goodall 173, par. 5). That means that they are also capable of interacting socially with their own kind, or of other species, as well as feeling pain. Because humans are seen as advanced creatures capable of empathizing with what happens to other people, it is important that we remain as such by extending our empathy with creatures that are lower than our status. If we remain indifferent to the plight of animals even though we have awareness of the pain and sufferings that they endure, that itself rubs us off of the true meaning of humanity and being human. We become just like any other lower kinds of animals that only pursue their own interests and goals. While there are some people that believe in the upholding of the rights of animals, there are still a greater number of those that do not se e how the use of animals in medical research can be likened to a dictatorship that steps on the rights of the weak, which is why I firmly believe that to restore our humanity, the use of animals in medical research must be stopped altogether. ... They can also get sick and they are not immune to pain, even without the intervention of humans. For example, chimpanzees are capable of cognitive abilities and socialization, but can also experience depression, sickness and hopelessness (Goodall 175, par. 20). Like chimpanzees, animals are also capable of feeling distressed at being separated from their family or social unit, or seeing the death of their own kin. Does this not make them like us, whenever we feel a sense of loss or homesickness from being away from the people we care about? This is why we must be liable in our actions towards animal use, and not justifying it by our greater power over animals. By using them as sacrificial lambs in the pursuit of improving human health as whole, it is not any different from tyrants or dictators that show off their power by feeding from the weaknesses of their subjects (Cohen and Regan 21). It is therefore inhumane to allow the proliferation of pain and suffering, even among lower anim als. We may frown at the human rights that are being trampled upon by such dictatorship, but what about the plight of animals being used as experiments and getting pain and torment from the human captors? Letting animals experience pain is no different from other predatory animals that let instinct take over without considering what other animals might feel. Humanity loses its value because the one thing that separates us from animals, sympathy and kindness towards all other living things gets lost, making us no better than animals moving on instinct and self-preservation. In my opinion it is equally important we also exert the same sympathy towards animals because as Immanuel Kant has said, anyone who is cruel towards animals are also capable of being

Tisco (tata iron and steel company limited)

Tisco (tata iron and steel company limited) 1. Introduction TISCO (Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited) is the worlds sixth largest steel company which was established by Indian businessman Jamshetji Nusserwanji Tata in 1907. It is also the largest private sector steel company in India in terms of domestic production. The company is the fifth largest steel producer in the world as it produces 18 million tons of steel in India and 52.32 million tons overseas. [1] The aim of the company was to maintain its reputation in the steel industry. For this they had to do some advancement in their technology because, the legacy system was outdated. Basically they wanted to transit from a production-driven company to customer-driven company which will make them more Customer friendly. [2] For the improvement in the system they had implemented ERP SAP 3 which later on resulted in a success of company. Generally its not so easy to be successful in the ERP implementation process, but as the company had taken right decision on right time, they were able to get the desired results from the implementation 2. ERP Implementation 2.1 Need of an ERP System TISCO was facing two main problems. Firstly, the systems which were they using were outdated and it was also having some errors. Secondly, the system was mostly designed for the process and which made them to pay less attention to the customer needs. [3] Finally, company decided to implement a new ERP system which is error-free as well as less complex and which will also help them to become more Customer friendly. 2.2 ERP System Selection The company wanted such an ERP system which would satisfy the factors such as time, profit, cost, compatibility, support, transparency and future requirements. While working on these factors company was also forecasting the condition which will become in the future after implementing any ERP system. So finally after a thorough study, the company ended up with the SAP 3 ERP which was fulfilling all the requirements of the company. [2] 2.3 ERP Implementation Process The ERP implementation process is a very time consuming because it has to go through some major factors like planning, designing and testing. Most important thing is that the system should meet the companys demands. Thus, to implement the SAP ERP system, a period of 8 months was allotted which was a big challenge for the company. [3] But the company was able to meet the deadline successfully. 3. Factors Contributing to Success 3.1 Planning The initial step for the company was to list out the goals that are is to be achieved. According to the goals they designed the process plan. TISCO wanted to create such an environment which will always make them to learn something new by which they can make changes to make the system more efficient. They had also planned about the changes that can affect the system in future. By this they can immediately implement the solutions for the changes without wasting the time. The company wanted the software to work in such a way that it would improve the products and services which will make the company to maintain its reputation in the steel industry. 3.2 Process Organization Its always good when the process is divided into some parts so that each process can be handled separately with less complexity. So the company had divided the whole process into two parts. The process which was more complex and had more transactions was defined as the ‘Hubs and the process with less complexity and transaction was defined as the ‘Spokes. [2] Hubs are the major part whereas the Spokes are the minor parts. Spokes were attached to the Hubs because finally the whole process was going to run together. These processes were designed into the SAP modules. Enough training had been given to the developers to work on these modules so that they can handle the problems which might occur while testing these modules. The company had given deadlines for each module because the final task was to run all these modules at the same time. And at this point if any kind of errors would occur then, there should be enough time to work on it. So, In order to run all these modules together the developers had to do the proper implementation of their knowledge. 3.3 Final Stage At this stage the company was ready with all the modules and was preparing to go live with the entire project. This stage was very crucial for them because this is the moment when they will get to know the results. As the company did not face any problems while working on the project, the desired results were expected. They had done the thorough analysis of the whole process and implemented the solutions for the changes where they were required. So the company was quite confident about the outcomes. 3.4 Result Finally TISCO got success in SAP ERP implementation project. This project helped the company in terms of financial, technical and managerial aspects. [3] This project made company to update its customers daily and providing a good quality of service across the country which led to the improvement of customer management. This project had led company to an improved productivity, enhanced customer service, speed delivery and reduced cost. The system was less complex and a user friendly which was the biggest advantage. This project helped the company to reduce the product cost and gain more profit in the industry. 3.5 Future Steps The success of this project was motivating for both the TISCO and the ERP vendors. Now TISCO is not only using this software but they are also going to work on it further to gain more benefits for the company as well as for the stakeholders. [3] This will help company to make more profits and satisfy the customer needs efficiently. In this way the company can keep its existing hold in the steel industry. 4. Conclusion Many big companies have failed to implement ERP systems. Due to this fact many companies doesnt prefer to implement ERP. But this fact did not affect TISCOs morale. They worked very hard on the project which made them more confident about the results. The speed at which they worked and the way they synchronized all the work was remarkable. This was one of the major contributing factors for the success. Finally the project gave the desired results and fulfilled all their expectations. 5. References 1. Wikipedia (2007) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Steel 2. Bhavish Sood, (2001): Indian Express Group (Mumbai, India) http://www.networkmagazineindia.com/200210/case5.shtml 3. Crewind Technologies Pvt. Ltd. (2009) http://www.erpwire.com/erp-articles/saperp-success-in-tisco.htm

Using Bicycles As An Alternative To Automobiles Essay -- essays resear

Using Bicycles As An Alternative To Automobiles Abstract: This paper basically shows the reasons to use the bicycle as an alternative   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  mode of transportation. It will points out the benefits of the use of a   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  bicycle. It will also show what is being done to get rid of the negative   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  aspects of using a bicycle for transportation. Bicycling is one of the fastest growing forms of recreation. People are drawn to it for many reasons, being out in the fresh air, the thrill of speed, the physical challenge, along with many other things. But there can be many more uses for the bicycle. The use that this paper will focus on is transportation. The use of bicycles can greatly improve the economy of a nation. A comparison between the efficiency of the transportation systems of the United Stated and Japan points this out. In 1990 Americans spent 17.9 percent of the GNP on transportation, whereas the Japanese spent only 10.79 percent on transportation. This difference of nearly 7 percent, gives the Japanese economy much more money for investing in their future. Our Economy is not the only thing we should worry about, and it is also not the only thing that can be improved by the use of bicycles. There are several major problems that could be drastically reduced by the increased use of bicycles. Traffic would be a lot lighter due to the extremely small size of bicycles. It would also greatly reduce the wear and tear on our roads and highways, and therefore reduce government expenditure. But one of the most serious problems it would reduce is that of pollution and smog in out larger cities. There are more benefits to biking, though. There are benefits that come at a more personal level. Biking greatly improves ones health. It can be a way to exercise without taking much times out of ones schedule. The time one would spend biking to work serves two important purposes. One, getting to work, but also as a great form of exercise. Improved mobility in crowded situations. In downtown areas, biking to work may actually save time. Cars crawl through congested traffic, while bicyclists ride around it. The time it takes to park a car... ...(Washington: Transportation Research Board, 1987) 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  United States, Actions Needed To Increase Bicycle/Moped Use In The Federal Community (Washington: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1981) 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mike Hudson, Bicycle Planning (The Architectural Press: London, 1982) 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  National Research Council. Transportation Research Board. Pedestrian Behavior and Bicycle Traffic (Washington: National Academy of Sciences, 1980) 6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  National Research Council. Transportation Research Board. Nonmotorized Transportation Around The World (Washington: National Academy Press, 1994) 7.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  National Research Council. Transportation Research Board. Nonmotorized Transportation Research, Issues, and Use (Washington: National Academy Press, 1995) 8.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  John T. Doolittle, Integration of Bicycles and Transit (Washington: National Academy Press, 1994) 9.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.tnrcc.state.tx.us/air/ms/vexercis.htm 10.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.nd.edu/~ktrembat/www-bike/BCY/TryBikeCommute.html

Fighting Police Abuse: A Community Action Manual Essay

Stop and Frisk has been a very active public affair that had held serious concerns over racial profiling, illegal stops, and privacy rights. The police were stopping hundreds of thousands of New Yorkers yearly. Stop and Frisk is based on a standard of the power granted upon the standard of reasonable suspicion. A police officer has the power to stop, question, and frisk suspects given reasonable circumstances. It is a question of each individual case that determined whether it is necessary for reasonable detention or investigation. If an officer suspects that a person is armed and dangerous, a frisk may be conducted without a warrant. Under the stop and frisk law, officers can stop people walking down the streets and search them for weapons, drugs and other illegal pieces of stuff. The stop and frisk were created to embrace the proactive and preventive theory of crime fighting. It was prioritized to conduct street surveillance of suspicious people and habitual offenders. Though the start of stops and frisk sounds protective and safe, it ended up as an aggressive policing, which was in a very heated situation for years. The vague suspicion, the search of an individual and the force used upon the target was incredible. Nearly most of the people stopped and frisked was innocent. â€Å"In 2002, New Yorkers were stopped by the police 97,296 times. 80,176 were totally innocent (82 percent)† (the NYCLU Campaign). Even without suspicion of wrongdoing, an officer approached someone and interrogate them based on their appearance. These searches were often unsuccessful in catching criminals, but few of them believed it was a success at crime control and stopped potential crime. Race played an important role in how minorities were targeted by the stop and frisk policy. The law strictly targeted African American and Hispanics and other disempowered communities. For example in the article of NYCLU Campaign, it mentions, â€Å"Young black and Latino men were the targets of a hugely disproportionate number of stops. Though they account for only 4.7 percent of the city’s population, black and Latino males between the ages of 14 and 24 accounted for 40.6 percent of stops in 2012. The number of stops of young black men neared the entire city population of young black men (133,119 as compared to 158,406). More than 90 percent of young black and Latino men stopped were innocent.† The stops indicated the innocent of a person and the color basis of a person. Walking around the city and being stopped by a police officer because of the skin tone resulted in racial discrimination. Majority of Latinos and African American were scared when they saw an officer because they used excessive force and targeted them as a criminal or an outsider. Stop  ¬and frisk indicated that race was the primary factor in certain, whom the NYPD mostly stopped were Black and Latino neighborhoods and even in areas where populations were racially mixed or mostly White. Blacks and Latinos were treated more harshly than Whites, being more likely to be arrested instead of given a summons when compared to White people accused of the same crimes. In addition, Blacks and Latinos were also more likely to have force used against them by police. The amount of force used against African American and Hispanics did not only affect them physically but also created lasting feelings of resentment and distrust on officers. â€Å"People who have been stopped say that if they show the slightest bit of resistance, even verbally, they can find themselves slammed against walls, forced to the ground and, on rarer occasions, with officer’s guns pointed at their heads.†(Rivera). The experience of being stopped and frisked by police often lasted emotionally. People who were stopped felt a range of emotions during stops, such as anger, fear, and shame. Stop and frisk left people feeling unsafe and afraid to leave their homes whenever they see the police. People who were stopped reported that stops often resulted in excessive force by police, for example when officers slapped them, beat them, or hurt them physically. The force not al ways paid out compared to the effect that it left on the people. Being harassed in public, a person could go through life challenges, feeling hopeless, uncomfortable, vulnerable and high alert. The body and the mind get tensed and start to get conscious around the surroundings that stares and ignores with a disgusting looks. Therefore, in the article of Rivera, two officers stopped a man named Christopher Graham19 years old after leaving his friend’s apartment. He was pushed against the walls and when the officer groped his personal space, Graham said, â€Å"I said, ‘Whoa, what are you doing?’ † Mr. Graham recalled. â€Å"The cop put his hand on the back of my cap and, boom, smashed my head into the wall of the apartment, for no reason.† The aftermath of the frisk was horrible because he had gone through six stitches, terrifying experience and an unfortunate dreadful account with the officers. He was neither arrested nor called for summons but yet had a scar that would remain in his whole life. The stops explored that young people perceived the police whether or not they felt safe where they lived, not to turn to law enforcement for help or to report crimes they knew about. The experience being stopped by police repeatedly perceived to be unfair and could be associated w ith undesirable developmental consequences. The Terry v. Ohio supreme court case was one of the biggest cases regarding the policy of stop and frisk. It lasted a great impact on the practice of stop and frisk, sometimes called Terry stop. An officer stopped John Terry the petitionary after the officer observed Terry staring at the store for a possible robbery. The officer ran a quick search and after approaching three men, the officer found revolvers that denied their appeals. The Terry stop gleaned from the information about whether the search was the protection of the officers and the public safety. The stop must have a reasonable suspicion to initiate the suspect and explain why the suspect behavior suggested criminal activity. The stop had to give reasons and explain, more than just hunches. The Terry stop cannot take the suspect to the police, move to a second different location, use excessive force and search for anything besides weapons. The Floyd vs New York City supreme case was yet one of the biggest controversial on stop and frisk. It was a case that questioned the stops that were not caused due to probable or reasonable stops. It violated the Fourth Amendment and the Fourteen Amendment which was not an equal protection due to all the obvious racial disparities in who is stopped and searched by NYPD. Both the Supreme Court case lawsuit challenged the use of stop and frisk as a violation guaranteed to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures. Comparing the differences between past stop and frisk and the recent ones that have taken place, I believe the recent ones have become more lenient towards the people. In the past, the officers did not stop a person because of reasonable suspicion; they were stopping to fulfill the record of their data and show their superiors what they have done for the day. The data recorded in stop and frisk was recorded in the person’s background check. The record stayed in the data for a lifetime, which did not come in the good outcome because even though they were innocent a criminal record was there in the system. Plus, during the olden days, police stopped a person regarding their guesses and suspicion and did not have a valid reason for a stop. After the supreme cases, the violation of the Fourth and Fourteen Amendment came to a tight spot where people knew about their rights and the officers grew more attention on the reasonable and suspicions stops. Therefore, based on past and toady’s issues time in New York City, after the cases, it provides an environment by bringing humanity together without any kind of race and social system. The stop and frisk that adapted during the beginning early was a process of improving the city. Looking back at the times when the rights were violated and not respected, we can just emphasize and see the wrongdoings that can be prevented today. Stop and frisk is not just an impractical way of fighting crime in New York City but also violated towards people’s right to walk freely. People were being stopped based on their skin color and appearance, the way they walked and even the neighborhood they lived in. The use of force against the minorities left them devastated and also affected others who lived under the same weight of this unprecedented policy. These stops had become extensive that many people learned to adjust their daily routines to protect themselves from regular police harassment. Thus, it created distrust towards the law and harmed people who were already disadvantaged in our city. The effects on crime rate were not so huge either. It did make a difference in the statistics but compare to the stops and the statics of crime report, it was humongous. There was no relationship between the stop and frisk and crimes took place. After all the scenario of protest, the New York City police restricted their stop and frisk policy two years ago. Even after restricting the policy, there were no impact or increases in the crime rates. In fact, the crimes had gone down and were stable as it was. In another hand, it did keep guns off the street but unfortunately; violating constitutional rights of some of the minorities did not work together with the policy.

Centeotl - The Aztec God (or Goddess) of Maize

Centeotl - The Aztec God (or Goddess) of Maize Centeotl (sometimes spelled Cinteotl or Tzinteotl and sometimes called Xochipilli or Flower Prince) was the main Aztec god of American corn, known as maize. Centeotls name (pronounced something like Zin-tay-AH-tul) means â€Å"Maize Cob Lord† or â€Å"the Dried Ear of the Maize God†. Other Aztec gods associated with this all-important crop included the goddess of sweet corn and tamales Xilonen (Tender Maize), the goddess of seed corn Chicomecotl (Seven Serpent), and Xipe Totec, the fierce god of fertility and agriculture. Centeotl represents the Aztec version of a more ancient, pan-Mesoamerican deity. Earlier Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Olmec and Maya, worshiped the maize god as one of the most important sources of life and reproduction. Several figurines found at Teotihuacn were representations of a maize goddess, with a coiffure resembling a tasseled ear of maize. In many Mesoamerican cultures, the idea of kingship was associated with the maize god. Origin of the Maize God Centeotl was the son of Tlazolteotl or Toci, the goddess of fertility and childbirth, and as Xochipilli he was the husband of Xochiquetzal, the first woman to give birth. Like many Aztec deities, the maize god had a dual aspect, both masculine and feminine. Many Nahua (Aztec language) sources report that the Maize god was born a goddess, and only in later times became a male god named Centeotl, with a feminine counterpart, the goddess Chicomecotl. Centeotl and Chicomecotl oversaw different stages in maize growth and maturation. Aztec mythology holds that the god Quetzalcoatl gave maize to humans. The myth reports that during the 5th Sun, Quetzalcoatl spotted a red ant carrying a maize kernel. He followed the ant and reached the place where maize grew, the â€Å"Mountain of Sustenance†, or Tonacatepetl (Ton-ah-cah-TEP-eh-tel) in Nahua. There Quetzalcoatl turned himself into a black ant and stole a kernel of corn to bring back to the humans to plant. According to a story collected by the Spanish colonial period Franciscan friar and scholar Bernardino de  Sahagà ºn, Centeotl made a journey into the underworld and returned with cotton, sweet potatoes, huauzontle (chenopodium), and the intoxicating drink made from agave called octli or pulque, all of which he gave to humans. For this resurrection story, Centeotl is sometimes associated with Venus, the morning star. According to Sahagun, there was a temple dedicated to Centeotl in the sacred precinct of Tenochtitln. Maize God Festivities The fourth month of the Aztec calendar is called Huei Tozoztli (The Big Sleep), and it was dedicated to the maize gods Centeotl and Chicomecotl. Different ceremonies dedicated to green maize and grass took place in this month, which began around April 30th. To honor the maize gods, people carried out self-sacrifices, performing blood-letting rituals, and sprinkling the blood throughout their houses. Young women adorned themselves with necklaces of corn seeds. Maize ears and seeds were brought back from the field, the former placed in front of the gods images, whereas the latter were stored for planting in the next season. The cult of Centeotl overlapped that of Tlaloc and embraced various deities of solar warmth, flowers, feasting, and pleasure. As the son of the earth goddess Toci, Centeotl was worshipped alongside Chicomecoati and Xilonen during the 11th month of Ochpaniztli, which begins September 27th on our calendar. During this month, a woman was sacrificed and her skin was used to make a mask for Centeotls priest. Maize God Images Centeotl is often represented in Aztec codices as a young man, with maize cobs and ears sprouting from his head, handling a scepter with green cob’s ears. In the Florentine Codex, Centeotl is illustrated as the god of harvest and crop production. As Xochipilli Centeotl, the god is sometimes represented as the monkey god Oà §omtli, the god of sports, dancing, amusements and good luck in games. A carved paddle-shaped palmate stone in the collections of the Detroit Institute of Arts (Cavallo 1949) may illustrate Centeotl receiving or attending a human sacrifice. The head of the deity resembles a monkey and he has a tail; the figure is standing on or floating above the chest of a prone figure. A large headdress accounting for over half of the length of the  stone  rises above Centeotls head and is made up of either maize plants or possibly agave. Edited and updated by K. Kris Hirst Sources Aridjis, Homero. Deidades Del Panteà ³n Mexica Del Maà ­z. Artes de Mà ©xico 79 (2006): 16–17. Print.Berdan, Frances F. Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Print.Carrasco, David. Central Mexican Religion. Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia. Eds. Evans, Susan Toby and David L. Webster. New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 2001. 102–08. Print.Cavallo, A. S. A Totonac Palmate Stone. Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts 29.3 (1949): 56–58. Print.de Durand-Forest, Jacqueline, and Michel Graulich. On Paradise Lost in Central Mexico. Current Anthropology 25.1 (1984): 134–35. Print.Long, Richard C. E. 167. A Dated Statuette of Centeotl. Man 38 (1938): 143–43. Print.Là ³pez Luhan, Leonardo. Tenochtitln: Ceremonial Center. Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia. Eds. Evans, Susan Toby and David L. Webster. New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 2001. 712 –17. Print.Menà ©ndez, Élisabeth. Maà ¯s Et Divinites Du Maà ¯s Daprà ¨s Les Sources Anciennes. Journal de la Socià ©tà © des Amà ©ricanistes 64 (1977): 19–27. Print. Smith, Michael E. The Aztecs. 3rd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. Print.Taube, Karl A. Aztec and Maya Myths. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993.Taube, Karl. Teotihuacn: Religion and Deities. Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia. Eds. Evans, Susan Toby and David L. Webster. New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 2001. 731–34. Print.Von Tuerenhout, Dirk R. The Aztecs: New Perspectives. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO Inc., 2005. Print.

American Revoution essays

American Revoution essays At the time that the Stamp act was repealed, the Declaratory Act was introduced to the colonists. The Act stated that Parliament had complete and total authority over the colonies. It said that Parliament had the power to make laws to govern the colonies, to tax them, and rule the colonies the same way as England. When the colonists found out about the Act, they were outraged. The sugar act was the first act after the French Indian war, which was in place to gain money back after the heavy costs of the French Indian war. Unlike other Acts hence forth the sugar act was strictly enforced. Even though England had obtain new land the American colonist were not able to settle in these new spaces because the British thought that there were too many natural resources. They British did not want the Americas to become to rich. Parliament levied a tax on legal and commercial documents as well as printed material such as newspapers and pamphlets, all of which had to carry a special stamp. If your document did not have the special stamp you could be fined or jailed. The money collected went directly to England. The British government still needed money from the colonist. Because the colonists were upset of the stamp act, they sent Benjamin Franklin to plead their case. He told Parliament that the colonists opposed it because it was an internal but would accept external tax. The British then placed a tax on lead, glass, paper, paint, and tea. This enraged colonist, so intern they did Advertised that British Red coats unlawfully attacked and killed innocent Americans. This only added to the hatred to the British who were being taunted for months this was know as The Boston Massacre. ...

Greece and Rome Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Greece and Rome - Essay Example Contribution made by early Romans were huge in number including technology, religion, art, empire architecture, language, government, law, literature and war as well. The history of Roman Empire is still a source of inspiration in many parts of world (Cunningham and Reich, 2005). Greek civilization originates from Greek history. It survived from 8th to 6th Century, after that from 146BC to the mastery period of Rome. This civilization had the mastery of ruling on states. The classic stage of Greek culture leaves a significant influence on Roman Empire in many aspects. Greek civilization holds a vision which interpreted to numerous parts of Mediterranean Region and Europe as well. The basis of western civilization is the major reason of rich culture in Classical Grecian people. The development of Classic Greek civilization was observed between 4th and 5th century (Cunningham and Reich, 2005). Roman and Greek civilizations belong to Mediterranean Region but still differ in social aspec ts. Civilizations hold different mythology and live their life in different manner. The outstanding difference is related to progress. Romans failed to make remarkable progress in their era. Greece had begun their development in 5th century BC. On many instances, it is supposed that many of the items utilized by Romans were previously a part of Greek Civilization and Greek invented those items (Freeman, 2004). Civilization believed to divide people in groups. The division of Greek society is categorized in five groups. These groups’ are women, slaves, medics, free men and in the end citizens. The position of women in Greeks civilization was even below that of a slave. In Romans the status of women is higher as compared to Greeks and give them equal rights of citizens, but still didn’t give them an opportunity to vote or work in offices belonging to political sector. The groups which were found in Roman society were Plebeians, Patricians, Free Men and Slaves (Moore, 200 6). Both civilizations were inspired by architectural techniques. Their building was the sample piece of innovative architecture. In Greek civilization, the style of architecture divides into three major groups. These groups were Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. Romans were motivated as well as inspired by the architecture of Greek building. Romans adopted the architectural style of Greeks; they gave a style of Greek architecture to their building structures. Romans added aqueducts and arches in Greek designs and gave them a new look (Moore, 2006). The common occupation of Greek was considered as agriculture, this occupation employed almost three quarter of people. Greek cape was rocky and mountainous area, giving tough time to famers. They failed to produce enough wheat. Grapes and olives were found in abundant quantity. Roman farmers produced what they needed like furniture, tools and clothing. After some time they started producing more than their requirement and began exporting (Fre eman, 2004). The major gods and goddesses of Greek were Poseidon , Aphrodite, Hera, Hades, Hestia, Apollo, Demeter, Artemis, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Dionysus and Ares. Mostly, different regions worshipped the same gods or goddess. The practice of Greek religion was expanding outside Greece as well to Asia Minor to Magna Graecia. ApolloIn Greek mythology, Demeter is the goddess of the harvest, who presided

Final project part two Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Final project part two - Essay Example Data gathered will be analyzed and use this to assessed the hypothesis and prototype design. To be able to present clearly our hypotheses and aim of the project a new methodology will be presented that will involved the assessment of the prototype design. This interim report will also include details of the prototype testing, recommendations for linking full data collection and analysis with the final hypotheses or showing the objectives, review and assessment of project aims, methodology used conclusions, and further work and revision of the original planning timescales and stages. The project aims to develop an online shopping that will satisfy the buyers. In the first part of this project our objective is to be able to present the pros and cons of on-line shopping. Thru this we will be able to encourage the user to use the system. The effectiveness and safety of on-line shopping is one of the objectives. The two important things that we need to consider are the satisfaction and the privacy of the users. This interim report will provide additional support on online shopping. Another objective of this project is to create an agent based framework that will better enable shoppers to experience shopping online in a real space. One advantage of traditional shopping is that there is someone who assists you during your tour in the mall. While in online shopping you will do all the work such as checking the specification of the items you need, the selection of the colour that fits your items and others that can be done for you by merchandisers and salesperson. The prototype design will make shopping as convenient, easy and enjoyable as possible by collaborating with the customers and salesperson or among customers. This will make online shopping experience similar in real shopping environment. Advantages of the Design One of the advantages of this design is that it will make interaction between merchants and purchasers and between clients and visitors easier. This design will help storeowners to improve sales by giving real-time customer support, assistance on sales, cross selling, promotion and individualized care, the mentioned services has been proven to be effective in increasing the sales. The design is chosen to be able to help not only the buyer but the merchants and businesses as well. Since online shopping involves some information about the buyer, the design prototype will ensure that the protocols on on-line shopping are being followed and the identity of the person will not be sold or given to others. An opportunity to model intelligent agent behaviour along existing ethical and legal forms by applying a form of representation not currently applied in most existing e-commerce agents systems. Background Project Description A multi-agent architecture for collaborative e-commerce applications is one of the objectives of this project; this will enable shoppers to enjoy the social shopping experience offline and that respects ethical and legal notions such as personal privacy and protection. Increasing the sale is one of major objectives of E-commerce, to make this possible the prototype design will include E-commerce recommenders. Since gathering information about the products on-line are too large a personalized and customized browser will help the buyer to choose the item that suite